The Concept of Time

The flow of time is not often unidirectional. It flows backwards as well. It does not mean that time can be rewound and made to tick once more from the beginning. It does not mean that we can reenact the past. It does imply that time is haunted by an ordeal. We often find time reversed even when we are moving forward. We return, we repeat and we relive. But this return, this repetition, this reliving is not to same as when we experience it. Time is neither extracted from the past nor temporalized from the present. There is no primordial time to which we can return. Often primordial time can be comprehended through clock time of our everyday habits. If time is just counting hours and minutes then it is a mere representation, not an actuality.

Literature 

Literature is nothing but confession where the writer confesses and then asks for forgiveness. Whether it is Chaucer, Hemingway, Kafka or any of the modern deracinated writers from Africa or Asia, it is always the same thing—this is my fault, forgive me! I want to tell you this is my fault, forgive me! If you do not confess and have a gung ho bravado of finding fault with others no one will proclaim you, no one will announce you. All proclamations and announcements are made from New York or London. It’s all so very depressing and yet compelling. We are compelled as blood brothers to protect the terrible audacity, this dark sanctity, of the writer speaking to us.

Using computers and distributed networks

computers and distributed networks

With the introduction of graphic user interface (GUI) the simple computer machine of yesterday has become then intelligent system capable of performing multiple and complicated tasks. It can now use multimedia, access the World Wide Web, import visuals, graphs and images from across the globe. Today fresh graduates are expected to perform many tasks based on their computer expertise, tasks which were once the domain of web statisticians or graphic programmers.

The electronic mail has had a deep impact on modern communications especially within organizations connected to business and technology. Don Tapscott in The Digital Economy (1995) says that emails have changes the way organizations conduct business. Emails are used for cooperative research, planning and international business. List servers are used to develop resources for professional development.

The speed of the Internet in business technology has created more pressure on the professional to develop research and communication skills. Employers want to access relevant information with speed and accuracy. Graduates at universities are increasingly using www to write electronic documents and provide persuasive assignments. The level of submitted assignments at universities is radically different from those submitted two decades ago.

There have been lots of unforeseen effects from the Internet as well. State governments and organizations are constantly conducting surveillance of private spaces and censoring them to preserve the status quo. As individual accessibility of the Internet grows the issues connected to conflict and change need better management. Today young graduates who let the Internet do everything for them, require more focused writing, research skills, theoretical understanding of systems and critical thinking skills.

Online Groups

Today we find online groups or communities based on a particular interest growing on the Internet. It would be interesting to investigate an online community and write about is web presence. It is possible to find web communities through particular interest categorization such as sports (cricket, baseball, and soccer), trading (eBay) or social networking (Facebook, mixi, Twitter). It is also possible to use a medium to locate communities such as P2P (peer-to-peer) , file sharing, MSN, Google, ICQ, Chat, Skype, newsgroups, blogs, MUDs, virtual worlds, magazines, alternate news sources, magazines, linked websites (webrings).  

The computer has been instrumental in connecting us to the work. Powerful networks based on the digital technologies have had a deep influence on every aspect of life ranging from business and politics to education and industry. The PC has divided the world into those who use it and those who do not. There have been complaints about the negative effects of computer communication especially connected to the emerging trajectories of exploitation and social alienation. Those who profit by the digital media try to promote its efficacious benefits, while those who do not complain of its evils.

Reading For The Stylistics Class

SHAKESPEARE’S STYLE

Shakespeare is seen as the master of the blank verse. His rhetoric may be faulty and his logic passé but he still remains an impressionistic writer of human character and desires. He may not understand race and ethnicity the way we understand now, but he does carry the imprint of the Elizabethan society complete with its faults and prejudices. His is a world of linguistic freedom when language is fresh and alive with new possibilities. Though Shakespeare began with declamatory speeches he soon adapted the convention of his days to suit his own needs. Soon we get soliloquies, metaphorical poetry and blank verse. He could experiment with blank verse, free verse or poetry with dexterity that no one, except Chaucer had done before. His is a society of nobility, gentry, yeomanry and the poor. In Shakespeare the nobility spoke blank verse or unrhymed iambic pentameter which consists of 5 iambs per line where every second syllable is accented. We do not have to go to the court scene where Portia outwits everyone and gets Bassanio’s friend Antonio freed from the unkind grips of moneylender Shylock. Early in the play we get a glimpse of her sharp-wit and eloquence. In Act I Scene 2 Portia tells her waiting maid Nerissa, that she is “aweary of this great world.” Nerissa advises her to be happy with just enough and to follow this advice, to which Portia replies,

‘If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels had been churches and poor men's cottages princes' palaces. It is a good divine that follows his own instructions: I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, than be one of the twenty to follow mine own teaching. The brain may devise laws for the blood, but a hot temper leaps o'er a cold decree: such a hare is madness the youth, to skip o'er the meshes of good counsel the cripple. But this reasoning is not in the fashion to choose me a husband. O me, the word 'choose!' I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse whom I dislike; so is the will of a living daughter curbed by the will of a dead father. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot choose one nor refuse none?’ (Merchant of Venice, Act I Scene 2)

Obviously Portia’s feminine and argumentative style suits her position as a rich, beautiful and intelligent speaker. She is going to masquerade as lawyer Balthazar and get Antonio free in a dramatic reinterpretation of the agreement. However here the sentence structure begins with a simple diction but becomes increasingly complex as she enters arguments. Right in the beginning she uses 2 verbs, repeats one and thereby shows action. Her prose is dynamic and based on western rational discourse. She begins with and ‘if’ clause which is closely subordinated to the subsequent main clause. Portia’s ability to subordinate clauses can be seen as an evidence of her sharp mind and rational temper. She uses powerful rhetorical devices such as a zeugma with double grammatical implication. The main clause of the first sentence is a condensed version of two clauses. It suppresses the verb “had been” but still keeps the balance –chapels had been churches and poor men’s cottages [had been] princes palaces. She uses rhetoric to win over an argument by sheer eloquence. Though Portia is quick-witted, intelligent and beautiful, some scholars she her as cruelly-directed towards the moneylender Shylock. Wolf Mankowitz calls her a “cold, snobbish little bitch” while Harold Bloom sees her as anti-Semitic and philistine settling for the “glittering gold digger Bassanio” (Bloom 1986b). Bloom resents her for expressing the anti-Semitism of the Elizabethan society, something equivalent to being a “Nazi sympathizer” as if the Jews were “decedents of Satan, rather than of Abraham.” He blames Shakespeare for creating the image of Shylock who has done “great harm in the world (Bloom, 2008 xi). Whatever be the nature of reactive criticism, Shakespeare’s blank verse suits the temper and needs of his Christian heroine in the play. A few examples from continental and American literary texts would clear up the fog of literary abstraction that is often found in theorizing about literature.

JANE AUSTEN’S STYLE

JANE AUSTEN

Jane Austen’s style is both graceful and sardonic. Her style marks the transition from neo-classicism to romanticism. The neo-classical style is clear and precise, ideally suited to the subject matter. Imagination had yet to displace reason and the mimetic was still there in the midst of the expressive. Jane Austen’s novel Emma (1815) is an excellent example of the use of different styles to suit the personality and the emotional condition of her characters. Dialogues from chapters 4 and 13 dealing with Emma’s dislike for yeomanry and Mr. Knightley’s confession of love to Emma are good examples of the different styles Jane Austen uses to communicate her vision of the novel.

In the first section Austen makes Emma Woodhouse dislike young Robert Martin just because he is a yeoman possess the Abbey Mill Farm. He is quite well-educated and writes good English. He is a perfect match for Harriet but Emma does not think so. The social classes in England during the early nineteenth century were quite integrated and it was not uncommon for a farmer to marry into aristocracy. But marrying above one’s social class always led to strife and problems. By showing Emma’s snobbishness, Austen is highlighting Emma’s shortcoming. Her snobbery is based on false principles.

‘That may be, and I may have seen him fifty times, but without having any idea of his name. A young farmer, whether on horseback or on foot, is the very last sort of person to raise my curiosity. The yeomanry are precisely the order of people with whom I feel I can have nothing to do. A degree or two lower, and a creditable appearance might interest me; I might hope to be useful to their families in some way or other. But a farmer can need none of my help, and is, therefore, in one sense, as much above my notice as in every other he is below it’ (Austen, 1996 30).

Undoubtedly it is the prose of a woman using hurried and argumentative sentences trying to convince Harriet not to marry Mr. Martin as he is a yeoman. Jane Austen shows that her heroine is immature, conceited and snobbish and is out of touch with the social and political reality of the times.

Some critics have complained that Austen did not take account of the political events of her time that were introducing great social changes in England. Arnold Hauser in Social History of Art tells us that though Austen’s characters were “rooted in social reality” the writer did not place them in situations where they could “solve or interpret” social problems (Hauser, 1951 825-26). But the situation of Emma and Mr. Martin shows that Austen was concerned about new aspirations of the yeoman class. The farmer occupied an important position is English class feeling and only the stupid would have looked down on him. Mr. Knightley sees Mr. Martin as a friend and calls him “a gentleman farmer.” His rise in social hierarchy was certain during a time when the French Revolution was in the making. England escaped social unrest as not only it enjoyed freedom and parliamentary government but had abolished the caste differences between nobility and commoners. Both joined hands together to conduct business and intermarry.

Emma’s statement is both contrived and dreadful. She is snobbish which arises from her self-love. She is also unkind, impulsive and brutal. She assumes that since Mr. Martin is a farmer he is illiterate. But his reading choice seems to be superior to Harriet’s. Emma admits that she would not have noticed a man like Mr. Martin. He was not low class enough for her to help but low class enough not to associate with. This shows her snobbishness. She can be charitable to the lower classes if they fit her estimation of poverty.

Mr. Knightley in Chapter 13 expresses his utter confusion through dashes and half formed sentences:

‘As a friend!’—repeated Mr. Knightley.—‘Emma, that I fear is a word—No, I have no wish—Stay, yes, why should I hesitate?—I have gone too far already for concealment.—Emma, I accept your offer—Extraordinary as it may seem, I accept it, and refer myself to you as a friend.—Tell me, then, have I no chance of ever succeeding?’

He stopped in his earnestness to look the question, and the expression of his eyes overpowered her.

"My dearest Emma,’ said he, ‘for dearest you will always be, whatever the event of this hour's conversation, my dearest, most beloved Emma—tell me at once. Say ‘No,’ if it is to be said.’—She could really say nothing.—‘You are silent,’ he cried, with great animation; ‘absolutely silent! at present I ask no more.’

Obviously an analysis of style finally attempts to evaluate the control a writer exercises over his theme, structure and character. We are assessing the writer’s dexterity, his erudition, his use of allusions, his understatements, his inter-textuality, symbolism and wordplay to create his vision and surprise us. If for example a writer follows a specific style but lacks the ability to suit the needs of the situation, it is possible to conclude that his control over his material and style is rather inadequate. However lack of change in style may be a deliberate attempt to reveal his central vision.

Security

The word security means the quality or state of being secure.  It therefore implies freedom from danger, fear or anxiety. Security can be understood on many different levels such as individual, group, regional, national or global. If we understand security on these five levels we can understand the way security agreements are made and executed.

Individual Security

Individual security implies protection from physical and psychological harm. If an individual feels fear or anxiety due to one reason or the other, this threatens his sense of security, his sense of safety. The UN Declaration of Human Rights mentions that all peoples are entitled to the ‘security of the person.’ This is easier said than done. How do we ensure individual security? Usually, individual security is protected by the laws of the nation and includes punishment of crimes, such as murder, theft, and coercion. Individual security also implies the attainment of basic needs such as food, home and job. Many people see individual security as achieving a high standard of living.

                                                          

Group Security

Just as an individual wants to feel secure, so does a group. However a group goes further—it wants to secure itself from discrimination. An individual can be mistreated due to his religious, ethnic or national background, but when this happens to an entire group it acquires the meaning of discrimination. Discrimination can become more obvious if an entire group is discriminated on the basis of some affiliation or identity. A group can easily organize itself and mobilize its members to fight any kind of discrimination. Therefore group security implies safety to its identity as a group.. If we wish to ensure the security of a group we must make laws that do not discriminate either in letter or in spirit.

Regional Security

Regional security involves a region that can be either a part of a nation or a sub-continent—such as the Kashmir region or the Asian region. Regional security implies security of the region in terms of its economic interests and rights. Regional groups might want to protect their regional resources by preventing mass immigration or migration. The might wish to maintain a certain standard of living by upgrading group security to a regional security.

National Security

The most important and contentious aspect of security is on the national level. The nation state invariably sees itself as the sole protector of individual, group and regional securities. By providing agricultural subsidies or imposing tariffs on manufactured good a nation attempts to protect a region or a group from becoming unstable. 

NATIONAL VERSUS GLOBAL

There is a prevailing belief amongst liberal thinkers that nationalism does not possess a global political agenda and nation states may soon be absorbed in the larger global reorganization. We are told through various think tanks that the power of nation states and the concept of nationality are over. But nation states from the US to BRICs still rule the roost in formulating immigration and economic policies. Individual and national interests force us to agree with slogans in newspapers such as “America Today” or “China Tomorrow,” but our lived experience is somewhat different. We may embrace multiculturalism and global egalitarian movements but in our daily lives we still have to reckon with the coercive power of nation states. Nationalism and nation states are very much here in their muscular power and singularity, and they are here to stay.

Eric Hobsbawm argues that both nation states and nationalism are on the decline. In his book Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth and Reality, he defines the tradition of nationalism as it existed in the nineteenth century and as it exists now. In the nineteenth century nationalist movements were both liberal and democratic and nationalists were busy constructing the identity of the nation, but today the nationalist movement attempts to split the nation. His opponents argue that this may not be possible in the near future. Both ethnicity and religion resist the notion of a modern universalism.

The withering away of the nation-state must be understood in the framework of global capitalism and post-modernity. The three forces of globalization, capitalist economy, mass communication and modern technology, have not only homogenized systems but also made national borders porous. The authority and reach of the nation state has become fuzzy. We have been told that the march of globalization will further erode nationalism and nation states. But this has not happened. On the contrary new nation-states are becoming more and more muscular. Within nation states ethnic and cultural issues have increased and outside nation states political and territorial assertions have multiplied. Issues connected with globalism and nationalism are hotly contested and fought.  

Political nationalism has morphed and multiplied into religious nationalism, ethnic nationalism, fringe nationalism and identity politics, which also functions as identity regionalism turning nationalist. Both separatist terrorism and religious terrorism is growing virulently in Asia and other parts of the world aided by a capitalist economy, communication networks and the electronic media. The unequal development of globalization has given rise to a growing discontent with hegemonic and capitalist enterprises. This discontent finds expression in fundamentalist ideas aided by religious or cultural transnationalism.
 

Today nation states wish to conduct global business but not at the cost of compromising geopolitical sovereignty. The example of EU is a delicate balance of economic interests of European nations always threatened by national interests. Undoubtedly it s a global world but the borders of this global world are predominantly national. On the one hand nation states are globalizing but on the other they are tightening immigration laws. Therefore capital and information are allowed to move but not individuals.
 

The individual seeks his interest not in multinational organizations but in the nation state. Most public interest can be explained in terms of national interest. The Anglo-American world which is so keen to globalize finds outsourcing to India and China rather unsettling. The capitalist countries wish to globalize but find reverse globalization threatening.

In India we dislike the nation state but we lay our trust in it. Urban India seeks the economic rubric of liberalization while the rural Bharat distrusts it. The anti-land acquisition movement in Nandigram and Singur reveal these contradictions. We may have imagined the nation state as Anderson would like us to believe but we still somehow trust in its centrality. We might like to believe that the concept of the nation state is over but its coercive power still directs our lives.

The Asian Security

With the rise of different varieties of fundamentalisms the issues of global security have become increasingly important both nationally and trans-nationally. Just as Europe and the United States have been gearing on a war-footing to combat the fallout from global fundamentalism, Asia too must acknowledge the urgency of both national and global security. Where does the future of important Asian nations like Japan, China and India lie? Does it lie in cooperation with Europe and America only? Or does it lie in cooperation amongst themselves and with other Asian nations? Every Asian country needs to answer these questions.

A lot has been written about Asia’s place in the global economy and the emergence of Asia Pacific as an important zone in the world. But hardly any attention is being paid to Asian security affairs. Security analysts believe that the United States would try to disengage its military presence in Asia and as a result create a security vacuum. This vacuum could then be filled by China, Japan and India either individually or collectively. However both unilateral and cooperative Asian security can be constrained by a lack of communication, cultural knowledge and understanding between the three nations. We may disagree with this conclusion but we cannot quarrel with the idea that Asia will profit by developing cultural and social links between China, Japan and India.

Most of Asia has enjoyed relative peace and political security for over fifty years. The wars in Korea and Vietnam were bloody but localized and the Cambodian War was an extension of the Vietnam War. The division of British India into three nations was violent but did not destabilize the sub-continent completely. The division between China mainland and Taiwan has resulted in tension but not in military conflict yet. Some U. S. Congressmen feel that East Asian defense has become rather costly for America. They also feel that since the Russian threat is removed and China has been integrating well into the world system, U.S. forces in Asia should be reduced in the coming decades. Already Japan is talking about a post-American system of security and developing its satellite surveillance capability by developing rocket technology. 

Now the question is can Japan remain a non-nuclear nation or need to revise Article 9 of the constitution. This is an alarming question both for Japanese and people of the world. There are no easy answers. Japan may not be worried about China but certainly feels threatened by North Korea. If Pax Americana retreats from Asia then China, Japan and India become important players in the security of Asia. For who could handle a conflict say between Malaysia and Philippines or Indonesia. In the absence of conflict resolution the whole of East Asia might become politically unstable.

Japanese leaders are worried by the increase in defense spending by China and North Korea. International discussion and negotiation could be an effective way to reduce such threat and tension that U.S. has prevented till now. The role of the United Nations and Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) would increase. Now ASEAN is making a new initiative to stage a Regional Security Conference to encounter this threat. Also the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) held meetings in Seattle to explore ways of creating regional security of Asia. These are welcome trends in this direction.

None of the main players in Asia—China, Japan and India—have emerged as trustworthy leaders who could handle Asian security affairs. Japan has become economically capable but is not seen as a leader in Asia, either by China or India. Its economy is rather fragile. Japan has developed a system of interlocking trade and investment in Asia to protect itself from Asian economic exploitation. China practices the Communist ideology, which has been rejected by the Asian region: and China has border disputes. On the other hand China’s open-door policy is making relations normal with other countries inviting cross investments. India, fluent in the English language and familiar with western administrative system, has an advantage in the international and regional organization. It has a considerable presence overseas especially in Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Hong Kong and Japan. With the rise of information technology India, Japan and China are investing in each other’s economy.

This does not mean that bilateral relationship between the three countries in Asia is good. Japan feels culturally indebted to China, but guilty of the military excesses it committed during the China War in the 1930s. Buddhism, Confucianism, Chinese ideograms and principles of art and government are shared by China and Japan. But Japan seems to feel some contempt for China’s slowness to modernize. China feels psychologically superior but economically envious of Japan. Today Japan is the biggest provider of funds and technology to China. The territorial dispute over the Senkaku islands and Japan’s rewriting of history books are major areas of conflict with China. In 1985 Robert Taylor in his book The Sino-Japanese Axis predicted that a new civilization would be built on “Chinese culture and Japanese art.” But there are plenty of Japanese who would not agree with this prediction.

There are many successful Indian traders in Southern Japan and now Indian IT professionals and scholars are getting added to this list.  Japanese businessmen find India an excellent location for offshore development. India is a major beneficiary of Japanese economic aid. But Japanese know little about India. They are shocked by the caste system, poverty and arrogance of the elite. However in the last few decades there have been Indo-Japanese success stories as well. The success of Maruti-Suzuki, a joint automobile venture, is a new model of partnership between the two countries. China and India is another story. The distrust generated by the Indo-China War of 1962 still lingers on. China is frightened of India’s backing of Tibet and India is worried of Chinese support of Pakistan. It seems unlikely that the three countries might come together in the near future to forge an Asian security system. However it is possible that they might develop their own influence over the region or develop the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation or SAARC 

CONNECTING WORDS AND PHRASES

     

If you become familiar with connecting words and phrases you can write well-connected academic essays. The use of transitions between sentences and paragraphs improve the structure and logical pattern of your essay. In order to avoid fragmented sentences you should use connecting words and phrases between independent clauses. Here is a list of connecting words and phrases divided thematically: 

Phrases/Words Expressing Agreement, Similarity, Addition

in the first place

not only ... but also

as a matter of fact

in like manner

in addition to

coupled with

in the same fashion

first, second, third

in the light of

not to mention

to say nothing of

equally important

by the same token

again

to

and

also

then

equally

identically

uniquely

like

as

too

moreover

as well as

together with

of course

likewise

comparatively

correspondingly

similarly

furthermore

additionally

Phrases/Words Expressing Disagreement, Control or Negation

although this may be true

in contrast

different from

of course ..., but

on the other hand

on the contrary

at the same time

in spite of

even so / though

be that as it may

then again

above all

in reality

after all

but

still

unlike

or

yet

while

albeit

besides

although

instead

whereas

despite

conversely

otherwise

however

rather

nevertheless

regardless

notwithstanding

Phrases/Words Expressing Support or Emphasis

in other words

to put it differently

for one thing

as an illustration

in this case

for this reason

to put it another way

that is to say

with attention to

by all means 

important to realize

another key point

first thing to remember

most compelling evidence

must be remembered

point often overlooked

to point out

on the positive / negative side

with this in mind

notably

including

like

to be sure

namely

chiefly

truly

indeed

certainly

surely

markedly

especially

specifically

expressively

surprisingly

frequently

significantly

in fact

in general

in particular

in detail

for example

for instance

to demonstrate

to emphasize

to repeat

to clarify

to explain

to enumerate

such as

Phrases/Words Stating Causes, Conditions or Purpose

in the event that

granted (that)

as / so long as

on (the) condition (that)

for the purpose of

with this intention

with this in mind

in the hope that

to the end that

for fear that

in order to

seeing / being that

in view of

If... then

unless

when

whenever

since

while

because of

as

since

while

lest

in case

provided that

given that

only / even if

so that

so as to

owing to

inasmuch as

due to

Phrases/Words Expressing Effect, Consequence, Result

as a result

under those circumstances

in that case

for this reason

for

thus

because the

then

hence

consequently

therefore

thereupon

forthwith

accordingly

henceforth

Phrases/Words Expressing Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

as can be seen

generally speaking

in the final analysis

all things considered

as shown above

in the long run

given these points

as has been noted

in a word

for the most part

after all

in fact

in summary

in conclusion

in short

in brief

in essence

to summarize

on balance

altogether

overall

ordinarily

usually

by and large

to sum up

on the whole

in any event

in either case

all in all

Phrases/Words Expressing Time, Chronology, Sequence

at the present time

from time to time

sooner or later

at the same time

up to the present time

to begin with

in due time

until now

as soon as

in the meantime

in a moment

without delay

in the first place

all of a sudden

at this instant

immediately

quickly

finally

after

later

last

until

since

then

before

hence

since

when

once

about

next

now

formerly

suddenly

shortly

henceforth

whenever

eventually

meanwhile

further

during

first, second

in time

prior to

forthwith

straightaway

instantly

presently

occasionally

Phrases/Words Expressing Space, Location, Place

in the middle

to the left/right

in front of

on this side

in the distance

here and there

in the foreground

in the background

in the center of

adjacent to

opposite to

here

there

next

where

from

over

near

above

below

down

up

under

further

beyond

nearby

wherever

around

between

before

alongside

amid

among

beneath

beside

behind

across