Class Notes on Charles Dickens' Hard Times

SERIOUSNESS AND ENTERTAINMENT

Though Dickens was a great entertainer he was not included in F R Leavis’s The Great Tradition of the English novel as he lacked seriousness something that Henry James and Joseph Conrad possessed. However Leavis felt that Hard Times has complete seriousness that could excite the adult mind. Leavis praised the novel’s tight story, clear symbolism, moral values, sharp dialogue, natural style and convincing denouement. Hard Times was seen as a great moral fable that captured the writer’s moral vision.

LIFE OF FACTS

“I want facts sir! What I want is facts, sir!” the teacher’s voice booms in chapter one. It is a classroom scene where only the voice of the teacher echoes. The one word that comes out of the lesson is ‘facts’ and next ‘reason.’ The voice of the teacher is imperial and authoritative. Dickens is ironic here. He presents the school as a model school in which Bitzer is the best student defining a horse clinically and dispassionately. There is no heart or creativity in education, just dry scientific facts.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Dickens was born in 1812 and was a product of the Industrial Revolution, a revolution that saw the rise of factories in England between 1770 and 1840. Dickens was rather poor, had no proper education and worked in a blacking factory. All this made him unhappy. He worked hard to educate himself and write novels to make a decent living. Dickens, like Gradgrind, had no time for idle fancy.

COKETOWN

The people of Coketown have no life at all, as people of Great Expectations do. We feel that characters in Hard Times have no energy at all. Dickens knew London better than Coketown but he could still bring out the listlessness of the townsfolk in Coketown. Dickens shows the dehumanizing aspects of industrialization in urban Victorian society but does not show details of the environment. English factories were destroying the bucolic landscape and the economic power that was arising from them was changing the social order making some wealthy while leaving others rather poor. The soot-coated, black and savage Coketown gives the feeling of repetitiveness, monotony and drudgery. Both its streets and inhabitants have lost their uniqueness and they look alike. The repeated use of the word “same” and the phrase “like one another” reveals both the monotony of Coketown and the drudgery of its inhabitants. Everything in the redbrick Coketown is “severely workful” and the idea of sameness extends to the eighteen churches of different “religious persuasions,” the jail, infirmary, town hall, school and cemetery. The blasting furnaces of Coketown make it hot as hell; the gas-filled air makes people feel asphyxiated.

SOCIAL CRITICISM

Social criticism saw the novel as a novel of “passionate revolt” where there were no villains or heroes, but only oppressors and victims. And the culprit, if there was one, was industry. Socialists saw the machine as a symbol of oppression when controlled by money-making capitalists. Dickens has lost his good humor. His tone becomes quite serious. Cecilia Jupe and Louisa are serious and suffering characters. Though humble and natural, Sissy is predictably bookish. Louisa is tragic.

THEMATIC BALANCE IN THE NOVEL

The novel ends in a thematic balance. The novel begins with the childhood of the mind and ends with the childhood of the body. Dickens begins the story with reason and hard facts and ends it with fancy and imagination. He believes that both machine and social graces should make life beautiful and worth living. The loss of balance in society was undoubtedly lamentable.

VICTORIAN UTILITARIANISM

Dickens brings out the negative effects of Victorian Utilitarianism are seen in the characters of Thomas Gradgrind and Josiah Bounderby. The practical utilitarianism of Gradgrind and the egotism of Bounderby destroy the creative spirit and fellow feeling. Utilitarianism was a philosophy based on a minimalist view of man that understood human nature in terms of economic relations alone. Though riddled with self-contradictions it was responsible in some measure for reforms in administration, sanitation and education. Utilitarianism, though inspired by the theory of laissez faire came to represent a streamlined civil service and centralized governance. It was difficult to reconcile the Benthamite idea of general happiness of a political and legal kind with Adam Smith’s self-harmonizing economic principle of laissez-faire (minimum intervention from the law). Dickens seemed to be both a victim and chronicler of such a contradictory response to utilitarianism in Hard Times, both in his treatment of the theme of education and trade unionism.

RESTRUCTURING EDUCATION

Dickens wanted to restructure education and do away with unqualified teachers in schools. He strongly felt the need to provide training to teachers. As such, he introduced Mr. M’Choakumchild, fresh from a training college, accompanied by his wife, about to deliver his first classroom lecture. Though the satire, both in the choice of the name and presentation of character, seems inescapable, M’Choakumchild is after all a representative of a new school ideology. His Scottish-sounding name obviously refers to the importation of trained Scottish teachers in English schools. Obviously M’Choakumchild knows too much in a somewhat conceited way. He bores and confuses his simple-minded but ignorant students. Through M’Choakumchild, Dickens expressed some of the popular criticism against training schools of the time. Dickens wanted training schools to instruct teachers in teaching methodology and develop their intellect, not just impart some erudite scholarship.

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF PARENTS

Hard Times develops the conventional theme of nineteenth century fiction that it was the responsibility of parents to get their sons into a financially rewarding profession and their daughters into a financially secure marriage. Till they got comfortably married, education for women was seen as developing skills to protect themselves against the greedy instincts of men. Gradgrind is no different from a typical Victorian father who has the welfare of his daughter at heart. Though it hurts Dickens’ sensibility, just as it does ours, Gradgrind finds no trouble with the idea of marriage as a financial transaction. He understands that her middle-class daughter needs money to set up an establishment. It is, therefore, commonsense to look for a man of means like Bounderby.

MARRIAGE AND POWER RELATIONS

Tom Gradgrind, more than his father, sees Louisa’s marriage to Bounderby as strengthening of “power relationships” between the two families apart from providing a good financial deal to his sister. Tom employs a mercenary approach. He views matrimonial alliance as economic advantage or exploitation. And he is not wrong in doing so.

POSTCOLONIAL CRITICISM

Edward W. Said in his book Culture and Imperialism argues that the English novel in the nineteenth century continues the narrative of a stable British empire and its imperial policy. The novelist, insofar as he believes in the general idea of free trade, sees outlying colonies available for convenient use in developing themes of “immigration, fortune, or exile.” It is only later that the Empire becomes the main subject in writers such as Kipling, Haggard, Doyle and Conrad. Fictional discourse about the Empire is also accompanied by discourses in ethnography, administration, economics and historiography. Furthermore, belief in liberal individualism and free trade were hard to reconcile with the maintenance of a vast colonial empire overseas. In Hard Times Dickens is alive to the debate of unionism, utilitarian education and worker’s predicament. Apparently the novel reveals the inherent tensions, ideological conflict and the muddled intellectual position of the author.

DECONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM

The conflict between facts and imagination is also played out along ideological lines. The opposing values of utilitarianism in schools and traditional humanism of the circus are played between utilitarians and emotivists. Gradgrind employs metaphorical language to control others. He believes in equivalencies while the circus folks see language as dialogue to empower others. A tension exists between metaphorical language of domination and broken language of dialogue.

NEW HISTORICISM

New Historicists, such as Catherine Gallagher, situate the text in the English industrial society and analyze Dickens’ attempt to suggest social cohesion through an intricate process of linking cooperative family life to competitive public life. Dickens attacks the unhealthy link between money and morality. And yet his novels reveal the unwillingness of the family to participate in larger social issues of the day. Dickens’ withdrawal into middle-class family values of self-discipline, responsibility, domesticity, self-sacrifice and dedication seemed at times to work against the idea of individual freedom. Critics have pointed out this lapse in Dickens’ writing, and, more seriously, have condemned him for his lack of enthusiasm at resolving his own ambiguous position vis-à-vis these issues.

FEMINIST LITERARY CRITICISM

The single hard fact about Hard Times is that it is a male-dominated and patriarchal novel. Obviously, this gives rise to the issue of gender and opens up related issues of,

A. the way Victorian society was constituted,
B. the way people saw themselves and constructed the other, and
C. the way sexual politics controlled women in private and public life.

Dickens explores feminine discourses such as female affection and sympathy much to the chagrin of his male-dominated critics such as George Henry Lewes (George Eliot’s companion). Dickens reveals a linguistic structure that attempts to control literature and more especially the entry of women in public life. Dickens also challenges the power structure of male-dominated Victorian society by presenting the world through female terms and conditions. Though speaking as a male and from the outside, Dickens speaks against the controllers of power thereby enhancing his position as a novelist. Feminist literary criticism, originating in the 1960’s out of the feminist movement demanding equal rights for woman, had gained strength and popularity in subsequent decades. It presupposed that, by and large, most cultures tend to be patriarchal if not outright misogynist. Feminist critics commonly agreed that concepts of gender tend to determine aspects of masculinity and femininity in any given culture. Therefore, unlike human sex, which is anatomical or biological, concept of gender has a social construction. They tended to agree with Simone de Beauvoir that “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.”

© Mukesh Williams 2012

Making a Classroom Presentation

From time to time all of us are asked to make presentations about our research and what we know about our subject. This may look quite natural but it requires some skill. The best way perhaps to approach a presentation is to tell your audience clearly what you want to let them know. Then repeat it one more time in the end by way of summarizing it.

1. ClarityIt is always better to tell your audience clearly and in a systematic manner. The best way to do this is to give them a brief outline of the key points, then deal with each point in depth. As you come to the conclusion summarize your arguments in a few short sentences.

2. Say it Through PicturesThere is an old saying that a picture is worth a thousand words. The visual effect is sometimes more powerful than mere words. So use photos, graphics and sketches.

3. Talk to the Audience Never read the slides or your notes. Remember what you want to say and say it naturally. This would keep the interest of the audience alive.

4. Natural Pace of PresentationBe easy and slow so the information sinks in, but not too slow lest the audience get bored. Finish you r presentation a few minutes before time so you allow the audience to ask you questions. Sometimes it is better to engage the audience by asking them to respond to your answers.

5. Slide TextDo not use too much text in your slide. Remember the text accompanies your oral statements. Try using simple and short sentences. Do not use too many bullets; at most three or four in a given slide. If you are making a 10- minutes presentation you may use 7 or 8 slides maximum. Remember you can spend about a minute on one slide. Also use contrasting colors for text and background

English Word Power

The vocabulary belongs to different disciplines, so please choose the one which is relevant for you. "A Complete List of Modern English Words" is for all.

 

Management
1. built: of sound or sturdy construction
2. demonstrated: explain, describe, illustrate
3. developed: grow or expand
4. enhanced: intensify, magnify
5. facilitated: to assist the progress, make easy
6. generated: produce, bring into existence
7. impacted: forceful contact, influence, effect
8. implemented: put into effect
9. negotiated: bargain for contract, business deal
10. revitalized: renew
Sales & Marketing Words
11. closed: having a barrier or boundary, concluded
12. collaborated: cooperate
13. delivered: to carry and give
14. drove: move a group
15. established: found, build
16. generated: to bring into existence, produce
17. increased: to make greater in size, number or quality
18. presented: to bring, offer, give
19. prospected: outlook for future
20. retained: to keep in possession, to use
Technical Words
21. analysed: to examine critically
22. built: of sound or sturdy construction
23. consulted: to provide information or advice
24. created: to make, happen, exist
25. escalated: to become greater, more serious
26. formatted: general arrangement, plan, design
27. integrated: combining two or more things to make them work
28. maintained: to make something continue at the same level
29. programmed: giving a computer instructions to perform a task
30. supported: to help or encourage
31. trouble-shooter: a person helping to solve problems in a company
Academic Words
32. applied: used in a practical way not theoretical
33. authored: written
34. counselled: professional advice
35. developed: to become bigger, more advanced, stronger
36. educated: having been to a school, college or university, trained
37. evaluated: opinion of the amount, quality, or value of something
38. mentored: an experienced person’s help
39. nourished: provide with food to keep alive
40. researched: a careful study of a subject to discover new facts
41. taught: to give lessons to students to help them learn something
42. tutored: to be taught something
Healthcare Words
43. assigned: give work or responsibility to someone
44. assessed: judge about the nature or quality of something
45. assisted: to help
46. cared: providing what someone needs for health or protection
47. charged: amount of money for goods or services
48. provided: to give something to someone
49. monitored: to watch and check something over a period of time
50. nursed: to take care of injury or illness
51. secured: guarded and made stronger
Accounting Words
52. analysed: to examine the nature or structure of something
53. audited: official examination of business or financial records
54. justified: to show that something is right and reasonable
55. verified: checked as correct
56. prepared: to make something read to be used
57. processed: series of things done to achieve a particular result
58. reported: to give some information about something
59. researched: careful study of a subject
60. reviewed: a careful examination intending to change something
Complete List of Modern English Words

A61. abated: calmed down
62. abbreviated: shortened
63. abolished: to officially end a law, system or an institution
64. abridged: to make a book short so as to leave out parts
65. absolved: statement that someone is not guilty of something
66. absorbed: to take something and learn and understand it
67. accelerated: to make something happen faster or earlier
68. acclimated: welcome, loud applause
69. accompanied: to travel or go somewhere with somebody
70. accomplished: very good at a particular thing
71. achieved: realized
72. acquired: procure, to get
73. acted: to do a particular thing
74. activated: to start something or a process
75. actuated: to make a machine or a device start to work
76. adapted: to change something to make it suitable for new use
77. added: to put together with something else
78. advance: to bring into consideration, notice
79. addressed: to think about a problem or a situation
80. adhered: to follow a rule, process or a principle
81. adjusted: to change something slightly to make it more suitable
82. administered: to give, manage or organize
83. admitted: allowed entry
84. adopted: to use a particular method or attitude
85. advanced: to employ recently developed ideas or methods
86. advertised: to tell the public about a product
87. advised: to tell someone what they should do
88. advocated: publicly recommended
89. affected: to produce a change
90. aided: to help
91. aired: advertised
92. allocated: to give money or space for a particular purpose
93. altered: to make changes to clothing, landscape et cetera
94. amended: to change law, document or statement
95. amplified: to increase something in strength especially sound
96. analysed: to examine the nature or structure of something
97. answered: something you say or write in response to a question
98. anticipated: to expect something and it happens
99. applied: to make something work in a particular way
100. appointed: to arrange or decide on a time to do something
101. appraised: to consider or examine something
102. approached: to come near to something
103. approved: something is good, acceptable or suitable
104. arbitrated: to officially settle an argument or dispute
105. arranged: to plan or organize something
106. articulated: to express or explain your thoughts
107. ascertained: to find out the correct or true information
108. asked: to request permission to do something
109. assembled: to come together as a group for a specific purpose
110. assessed: to judge the nature or quality of something, evaluated
111. assigned: to give something for use
112. assisted: to help
113. assumed: to accept something as true without proof
114. attained: to get something after a lot of effort
115. attracted: to pull, to be drawn towards something or someone
116. audited: to officially examine business or financial accounts
117. augmented: to increase the amount, value or size
118. authored: written by
119. authorized: to give official permission to somebody
120. automated: to use machines or computers
121. awarded: officially give something to someone

B
122. balanced: proper arrangement or adjustment, in proportion
123. bargained: advantageous purchase; transaction between parties
124. began: to commence, start or proceed
125. benchmarked: a standard of excellence to measure other things
126. benefited: something that is advantageous or good
127. bid: to set a price one would pay or charge
128. billed: a statement of money owed for goods/services supplied
129. blocked: to obstruct by placing obstacles
130. bolstered: to support or uphold something
131. boosted: to increase, raise, lift
132. borrowed: to take something with the promise to return
133. bought: to acquire or possess
134. branded: trademark of a manufacturer
135. breakthrough: advance, achievement
136. bridged: connect
137. broadened: extend, enlarge, expand
138. brought: to carry, convey, conduct
139. budgeted: an estimate of expected income and expense
140. built: to construct, assemble, join
141. buttress: support a structure, a prop

C
142. calculated: ascertained mathematically
143. canvassed: to solicit votes, opinions, subscriptions
144. captured: to take by force or stratagem
145. cast: to throw or conjecture
146. catalogued: to list or record items for sale or for a manual
147. categorized: to arrange in classes; classify
148. centralized: to bring under one control or authority
149. chaired: seat of office or authority
150. challenged: demand an explanation or justification
151. changed: to make different
152. channelled: to direct towards a particular course
153. charted: to outline showing special conditions
154. checked: to prove to be right, correct
155. circulated: to pass from place to place, person to person
156. clarified: to make an idea or statement clear or intelligible
157. classified: arrange or distribute into classed specimen
158. cleared: easily seen, sharply defined
159. coached: to be instructed or advised
160. co-authored: one of two or more joint authors
161. collaborated: to work with one another, cooperate
162. collected: brought or placed together
163. combined: joined or united
164. commissioned: an authoritative order, charge or direction
165. committed: to give in trust or charge, consign
166. communicated: to impart or transmit knowledge
167. compiled: to put together documents in one book
168. completed: finished, ended, concluded
169. complied: to put together documents or selections
170. composed: to form something by combining parts
171. computed: to determine something by calculation
172. conceived: to form a notion, opinion or purpose
173. conceptualized: to form a concept or think in concepts
174. condensed: to reduce in volume, area, length
175. conducted: way of acting , behaviour, deportment
176. conserved: to manage resources wisely
177. consolidated: brought together into a single whole
178. constructed: to make by putting parts together, frame or devise
179. consulted: to seek advice or information, get guidance
180. contributed: to give something for a common purpose
181. controlled: to exercise restraint or direction
182. converted: transmute, transform, change into something else
183. conveyed: to carry from one place to another, transport
184. convinced: to make someone agree by argument or evidence
185. coordinated: to act in a harmonious combination
186. corrected: united, joined or linked
187. counselled: advised or instructed
188. created: to cause something to come into being
189. critiqued: detailed evaluation, review
190. cultivated: to develop or improve by education or training
191. customized: to modify or build according to specifications
192. cut: to divide something

D
193. dealt: to take action with respect to a thing or person
194. debated: a discussion involving opposing views
195. debugged: to remove defects or errors
196. decentralized: to distribute administrative powers or functions
197. decreased: to diminish or lessen
198. deferred: postponed or delayed
199. defined: to state the meaning, identify
200. delivered: to give into another’s possession
201. demonstrated: to make evident or establish by argument
202. depreciated: devalue
203. described: to depict in written or spoken words
204. designated: indicate, show or specify
205. designed: prepare preliminary sketch or plan
206. detected: to discover the existence of
207. determined: decided, settled, resolved
208. developed: to grow, expand, elaborate
209. devised: to contrive, plan, elaborate
210. diagnosed: to determine the identity of , determine
211. directed: guided, regulated or managed
212. discovered: get knowledge of, learn or find
213. dispatched: to send, transact, dispose
214. dissembled: to mask, hide, camouflage
215. distinguished: noted, eminent
216. distributed: dispersed, divide, give
217. diversified: distributed amongst several types
218. divested: to deprive or rid
219. doubled: twofold or twice

E
220. educated: undergone education, cultured
221. eased: to lessen difficulty or effort
222. earned: to merit a compensation for service rendered
223. educated: undergone education, cultured
224. effected: something produced by agency or cause, result
225. elicited: to draw, bring forth
226. eliminated: to remove, get rid of
227. emphasized: to lay stress on
228. enabled: to make it possible, to give power
229. encouraged: to inspire or give confidence
230. endorsed: to improve, support or sustain
231. enforced: to put in force, compel
232. engaged: busy or involved
233. engineered: to manage something skilfully or artfully
234. enhanced: to raise the value or price of something
235. enlarged: to make large or big
236. enlisted: to enrol voluntarily in an organization
237. enriched: to add greater value or significance to
238. ensured: to secure or guarantee
239. established: to institute or build
240. examined: to observe or investigate carefully
241. exceeded: to go beyond quality or degree
242. exchanged: to give up something for something else
243. executed: to carry out or accomplish
244. exempted: to become free from obligation or liability
245. expanded: increased in area, bulk or volume
246. expedited: to hasten, speed up the progress of
247. explored: to traverse, scrutinize or look into closely
248. exposed: left without shelter or protection
249. extended: stretched or prolonged
250. extracted: to pull, draw out, deduce
F251. fabricated: to construct by assembling parts or sections
252. facilitated: to make easier or less difficult
253. fashioned: prevailing custom or style
254. fielded: to answer or reply skilfully
255. financed: to provide revenue or resources
256. focused: a central point
257. forecasted: to predict or calculate in advance
258. formalized: authorize, accept
259. formed: shape, body, defined area
260. formulated: to develop or express in precise form
261. fortified: to protect or strengthen
262. founded: equipped, furnished
263. fulfilled: to carry out, realize, perform
264. furnished: to provide or supply
265. furthered: advance something

G266. gained: to get or acquire
267. gathered: to bring together or assemble
268. gauged: to determine the exact dimension of something
269. generated: to bring into existence, to produce
270. governed: administered, overseen
271. graded: classified, sorted, categorized
272. granted: approved, allowed, decided
273. greeted: hailed or welcomed
274. grouped: gathered, assembled, congregated
275. guided: directed, showed

H
276. handled: held, moved, controlled
277. helped: aided, assisted, facilitated
278. hired: rented, appointed, employed
279. hosted: presented or accommodated

I280. identified: to establish as being a particular person or thing
281. illuminated: to supply with light
282. illustrated: to show clearly, demonstrated
283. implemented: carry out, accomplish
284. improved: to enhance in value or quality
285. improvised: to make, invent or arrange offhand
286. inaugurated: to induct a person into an office
287. incorporated: united in one body
288. increased: make or become something greater
289. incurred: to become liable or subject to
290. individualized: particularize
291. indoctrinated: to instruct in fundamentals or sectarian opinion
292. induced: persuade or influence
293. influenced: to affect or alter by intangible means
294. initiated: to cause or facilitate the beginning of something
295. innovated: to effect change, to introduce as new
296. inquired: to search or investigate
297. inspected: to view closely, to examine officially
298. inspired: outstanding, brilliant
299. installed: to place in an office, induct
300. instigated: to goad or provoke
301. instilled: to impart gradually
302. instituted: to establish or organize
303. instructed: to give knowledge, teach or train
304. insured: compensation of life or property upon loss
305. integrated: unified control
306. interacted: to act upon one another
307. interpreted: to explain in understandable terms
308. intervened: to come in between, to hinder
309. interviewed: a formal consultation to evaluate performance
310. introduced: to bring something or someone for the first time
311. invented: find, discover, fabricate
312. inventoried: to catalogue
313. invested: to grant control or authority
314. investigated: to inquire, study, examine systematically
315. invited: to request the pleasure or participation of someone
316. involved: implicated, concerned in some affair
317. isolated: separated from others, alone, solitary
318. issued: putting forth, promulgating, distributing
J319. joined: to bring into contact, connect
320. judged: to pass a critical judgement
321. justified: to show to be right

K322. kept: simple past tense of keep
323. key: something affording means of access

L324. launched: to send forth, start, initiate
325. lectured: a speech or reprimand
326. led: simple past tense of lead
327. lightened: to become lighter or illuminated
328. liquidated: to settle debts or get rid of someone by killing
329. litigated: subject of a lawsuit
330. lobbied: a group campaigning to influence members
331. localized: particular place or locality
332. located: establish a position or situation
333. logged: to enter a log, compile, amass

M
334. maintained: to preserve, retain
335. managed: to govern or control
336. mapped: represent, delineate
337. marketed: trade or traffic in a particular commodity
338. maximized: to increase to the greatest possible amount
339. measured: accurately regulated or proportioned
340. mediated: reconcile warring parties, settle disputes
341. merchandised: manufactured goods bought and sold
342. merged: coalesce, unite, blend
343. minimized: to reduce to the smallest portion
344. modelled: representation, imitation or comparison
345. moderated: kept within reasonable or proper limits
346. modernized: give a new modern character
347. modified: changed, alter partially
348. monitored: supervise, admonish
349. motivated: incite, impel
350. moved: advance, progress
351. multiplied: to increase manifold

N
352. named: appellation, designation, title
353. narrated: to give account of or to tell a story
354. navigated: to move through or over water
355. negotiated: to deal or bargain with the other
356. netted: net income or profit
357. noticed: information, warning, announcement
358. nurtured: to bring up, train, educate

O
359. observed: to perceive, watch, notice
360. obtained: to come into possession of, to acquire
361. offered: to present for acceptance or rejection
362. opened: relatively free for obstructions
363. operated: to work, perform, function
364. orchestrated: to arrange or manipulate
365. ordered: neatly arranged, well-organized
366. organized: having a formal structure
367. oriented: to adjust with relation to
368. originated: start, arise, begin
369. overhauled: to make necessary repairs
370. oversaw: to direct, supervise

P371. participated: shared, took part in something
372. patterned: configuration, design
373. performed: to carry out, execute, to do
374. persuaded: to prevail upon, advise, to urge
375. phased: process of change or development
376. photographed: suitable for a picture in a specific way
377. pinpointed: to describe something exactly or precisely
378. pioneered: first to do something
379. placed: to be put in a particular spot or position
380. planned: scheme or method of doing something
381. polled: collecting opinion samples on a subject
382. prepared: properly organized or equipped
383. proffer: offer
384. propose: to suggest for consideration
385. presented: to introduce or submit something
386. preserved: to keep alive or in existence
387. presided: in position of authority, presided
388. prevented: to hinder or stop from doing something
389. processed: to move forward or continue and action
390. procured: to bring about, obtain
391. profiled: represent or outline a person or thing
392. programmed: a plan of action schedule, procedure
393. projected: something contemplated, devised or planned
394. promoted: advance in rank or dignity, to flourish
395. prompted: to assist a person to do something
396. proposed: to offer or suggest
397. proved: to establish the truth or genuineness of something
398. provided: to make available, furnish
399. publicized: to bring to notice, to advertise
400. published: to issue for sale or distribution
401. purchased: to acquire something by payment of money
402. pursued: to follow closely

Q403. quantified: to determine the quantity of something
404. qualified: having the qualities or accomplishments
405. quoted: to repeat a passage from a book, an excerpt

R
406. raised: elevate; move to a higher position
407. ranked: social or official position; social class hierarchy
408. rated: price; degree of speed or progress
409. received: to take into one’s possession, something bestowed
410. recommended: to suggest, advice as an alternative
411. reconciled: become amicable; to settle a dispute
412. recorded: to set down in writing
413. recovered: to get back or regain something
414. recruited: newly enlisted or drafted member
415. rectified: to correct, set right
416. redesigned: to prepare pans or sketch once again
417. reduced: to bring down to a smaller level
418. refined: free from impurities
419. regained: to gain again; to recover
420. registered: recorded; enrolled
421. regulated: to control or direct by a rule
422. rehabilitated: to restore to good health; ability to work
423. reinforced: to strength with some support
424. reinstated: to establish again in a former position
425. rejected: to refuse to recognize or grant permission
426. remedied: something that cures or corrects
427. remodelled: to model again; to reconstruct
428. renegotiated: to re-examine and convince
429. reorganized: to organize again
430. repaired: to repair or renew
431. replaced: to provide substitute or equivalence
432. reported: a widely circulated statement
433. represented: to designate, denote
434. researched: a systematic inquiry
435. resolved: firm purpose or intent
436. responded: to answer, reply
437. restored: to bring back to the former condition
438. restructured: to change fundamentally, to restore
439. resulted: consequence of actions
440. retained: to keep possession of
441. retrieved: to recover or regain
442. revamped: to renovate, redo
443. revealed: to make known, disclose
444. reversed: opposite or contrary in position
445. reviewed: to go over a subject again
446. revised: to amend or alter an opinion
447. revitalized: to give new life to something
448. rewarded: something given or received as recompense

S
449. safeguarded: ensuring safety
450. salvaged: saving from danger
451. saved: to rescue; avoid spending
452. screened: to show a movie; selection
453. secured: protect from danger; to get hold of
454. segmented: something divided
455. selected: choice, preference
456. separated: to keep apart
457. served: to render assistance, to offer a meal
458. serviced: to help
459. settled: resolve or agree
460. shaped: designed
461. shortened: reduced
462. shrank: contract, draw back
463. signed: symbol, name token of indication
464. simplified: to make less complex
465. simulated: to create a likeness
466. sold: to transfer goods for money
467. solicited: to seek for something
468. solved: to find the answer or explanation
469. spearheaded: leading an attack
470. specialized: to pursue some special line of study
471. specified: to mention specifically, definitely
472. speculated: to engage in thought or reflection
473. spoke: to articulate
474. spread: to stretch or open
475. stabilized: to maintain level or quality
476. staffed: a group employed to do some work
477. staged: occurring as planned
478. standardized: to make an established standard
479. steered: to guide on a given course
480. stimulated: to rouse to action
481. strategized: to finalize a plan
482. streamlined: designed to give maximum efficiency; compact
483. strengthened: to make stronger
484. stressed: give importance or significance
485. structured: manifesting defined organization
486. studied: marked by conscious effort
487. submitted: to yield to power or authority; to hand in
488. substantiated: provide proof or competent evidence
489. substituted: acting or serving in place of another
490. suggested: to mention or introduce an idea or suggestion
491. superseded: to replace in power or authority
492. supervised: to oversee
493. supplied: to furnish or provide what is lacking
494. supported: to sustain or withstand
495. surpassed: go beyond
496. surveyed: to take a comprehensive view
497. synchronized: same rate and exactly together
498. systematized: to arrange according to a system
499. tabulated: calculated or determined by math calculation
T500. tailored: made-to-order
501. targeted: goal to be reached
502. taught: to impart knowledge or skill
503. tightened: secure, fasten
504. took: acquire, procure
505. traced: sign, track, residue
506. traded: buying, selling, exchanging
507. trained: instruct
508. transacted: to conduct business
509. transferred: to remove from one place to another
510. transformed: to change, convert
511. translated: to change from one language into another
512. transmitted: to send or communicate information
513. transported: carried from one place to another; moved
514. treated: to behave in a specific manner; to negotiate
515. tripled: three times
516. troubleshot: to help overcome a problem
517. tutored: to instruct

U
518. uncovered: no protection or collateral
519. underlined: underscore, emphasize
520. underscored: draw a line beneath something, emphasize
521. undertook: to take upon oneself to do
522. underwrote: to show agreement or support
523. unearthed: to dig out, to find
524. unified: to make a single unit
525. united: harmony, single entity
526. updated: to bring up to date
527. upgraded: new version, improved model
528. urged: to push, impel, incite
529. used: worn out, utilized
530. utilized: to put to use, make profitable

V
531. validated: substantiate, confirm
532. valued: highly regarded, esteemed
533. verbalized: express in words
534. verified: confirm the accuracy through evidence
535. viewed: behold, inspect
536. visited: to go to and stay with a person
537. visualized: to recall or make a mental image or picture
538. voiced: expressed vocally
539. volunteered: offer service or undertaking

W
540. weathered: seasoned by exposure
541. wastage: loss by wear, decay
542. weighed: additional weight
543. welcomed: kindly greeting upon arrival
544. widened: broad or expanded
545. withstood: hold out against, resist
546. witnessed: to be present at an occurrence
547. won: to finish first
548. worked: effort directed to produce something
549. wrote: to trace letters or words

 

Y550. yielded: to give forth or produce

 

 

THE REPUBLIC, PLATO AND GREEK SOCIETY

Though Plato was of noble birth and intellectually superior to most of his contemporaries he opted out of politics due to the injustices of a tyrannical oligarchy and the unjust execution of his mentor Socrates by the Athenian jury. After the Peloponnesian wars two powerful groups, The Four Hundred and Thirty seized control of the government turning Athens into a brutal oligarchy. Plato’s eccentric teacher Socrates was seen as a threat to the status quo and was falsely accused by a 500 strong Athenian jury of inventing new deities and not recognizing the state gods. Plato decided not to be a part of this corrupt political system but to continue the good work of his mentor. He founded an Academy in 387 BC, the first modern university in the west. Here students learned all sorts of things ranging from politics and law to medicine and philosophy. It was not an ivory tower institution but prepared students to enter different professions by teaching subjects relevant to life and society. The Academy lasted for 912 years.

Plato’s Republic does not pontificate, preach or poeticize but philosophize. It pays special attention to reason, order and the association of thought. A philosopher has not only thought about different subjects deeply but also attempts to explain the connections and possibilities. All philosophy begins with being critical and often arrives at conclusions which are quite surprising, what we often call reasoned truth. Unlike the social sciences, philosophy does not have a fixed subject; it deals with all forms of human knowledge. It encompasses ideas connected to morality, truth and being and much more. Often there are no fixed terminologies to guide our understanding. We should therefore follow inquires of a philosopher before we can understand his logic. Often understanding the logic of philosophers might be difficult as they express complex ideas in a convoluted manner. But when philosophy is simple such as Plato’s or other Greek philosophers it seems hard to understand.

The Republic begins with moral philosophy by asking the fundamental question of Greek society: What is justice? Justice was one of the overarching Greek values and fundamentally connected to the cultivation of virtues. Plato was interrogation the question of how to live well which was central to human nature, to the human soul. Once we could answer this question the best form of human life is possible. How should we define justice? How should it administered? How should it be realized in a given state? Plato therefore moves from a definition of justice, to just action and then laying it down as an ideal state policy, a model for existing societies of his times and the ones yet to come. Plato realized that the best form of human life was only possible in some sort of an organized community. The civic community was closely connected to Plato’s idea of the best order of human society. In The Republic Plato provides an ideal picture of the human soul. To the Greeks there was no separation between ethical and political functions in society. Similarly for an individual the ethical and political spheres were knit together into a single entity. There was no difference between the laws, custom and religion of a given society. To understand one was to understand all.

Plato often criticizes the prevailing social institutions and practices. He challenges opinions and questions rhetoric which is false. The Republic is not just philosophy but also a book about social and political reform. Often this leads to prejudice and differs in approach from Aristotle’s works.

Plato’s speculations are dialogical in nature following the tradition of Socrates which had to do with the prevailing literary climate of the time. Greek literature was more concrete, objective and impersonal than modern literature. Greek drama was less subjective. Take the example of Thucydides whose history lacks personal details and reflection. Often fictitious speeches are given to real characters thereby compensating for general reflection. The Greeks had not yet separated the exposition of ideas from the representation of characters as we have done. Plato used known persons to present philosophical ideas and opinions, something they did posses in actual life. Though such characters possess propriety and vivacity, they lack historical truth a feature of our times. Aristophanes also does not conform to historical truth. When we come to modern philosophers such as Berkeley we find that they use characters as character in philosophy rather than as real characters. Bunyan is the best example of the Platonic presentation of ideas. The Protagoras can be seen as a great philosophical drama and Euthydemus a philosophical burlesque. Most of Plato’s works, except the Laws and the Timeaus, possess a dramatic quality which is eschewed in modern philosophical exposition. If we see the Republic we discover that the dramatic quality of the book diminishes as it progresses but Plato often revives it

In the ten books of The Republic Plato demonstrates the superiority of living a just life in a moral world where the just are rewarded and the unjust punished not only in this but also in the next. The myth of Er in the 10th book takes us beyond into an afterlife through the return of the warrior Er who details his adventures in an absolute world.