LANGUAGE

WORDS 

Language is a unique invention of mankind where words create both surface meaning and deep feeling which we call denotation and connotation respectively.  Sometimes a word may denote one thing but connote something entirely different. A red rose may just be a flower but when placed in the hair of someone may stand for love. In modern terminology we call it interpretation and interpretation often relies on a context. A context would imply the surrounding meaning and the possible links of one word with other words. Language not only creates meaning but also shapes it through its form and content.  Its content contains meaning, while its form gives rise to shapes and sounds. The way meaning unfolds is called structure. This aspect of language can compel or persuade us and often falls in the realm of rhetoric.

LOGOCENTRISM

We invariably assume that when we use a language we are able to communicate our meaning to the other. This assumption need not be always true. Sometimes we succeed and sometimes we fail. Language is loaded with meaning, conceptions and misconceptions.  We somehow believe that language possesses an exactitude that other communicative modes do not. But nothing can be further from the truth. Language is perhaps the most inexact means of communicating ideas, thoughts and feelings. Also there is great scope for misrepresenting ideas. The shifting and evolving nature of meaning in sentences and their context invariably creates misunderstanding even when the cultural context is shared between speakers. Derrida believes that ideas do not exist outside language. Words refer only to other words, not to things, thoughts or feelings. He is one of the poststructuralists who playfully attacks logocentrism, a method of literary analysis where language is seen as the fundamental expression of external reality.  

DENOTATION/CONNOTATION

Cultural intentions, the logic of subject centered reason in language, and ambiguity can create multiple meanings making statements potentially volatile or fuzzy. Obviously words function as both denotation and connotation, that is, they denote an apparent surface meaning and they connote an aura of implied meaning. Both make up the identity and personality of words and the user is free to choose either the connotation or the denotation of words. Generally speaking denotation is used for scientific prose while connotation for emotive prose for example in poetry. 

Literature, dramatic and visual arts invariably employ figures of speech, imagery, metaphor, synesthesia, metonymy, hyperbole and symbolism, all termed as figurative language, to communicate their experiences. Synesthesia has two meanings. Physiologically it implies sensation felt in one part of the body when another part is stimulated. Psychologically it means a process in which one type of stimulus produces a secondary, subjective sensation, as when some color evokes a specific smell. Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one thing is used in place of that of another associated with or suggested by it, for example we may use “10 Downing Street” for “the British Prime Minister.”

The use of figurative language is not restricted to arts or media. Politicians, statesmen, businessmen, advertisers and sports managers all use figurative language, some use it dexterously and some ineptly. When we understand the figures of speech they employ we can not only understand what they are saying but also what they are not saying or hiding. This understanding helps us to recognize propaganda, prejudice, power and coercion exercised through the medium of language.

LINGUISTIC MEANING

Modern theorists such as Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Jacques Lacan, have unmasked the inner contradictions and production of linguistic meaning and the role it plays in shaping individual consciousness. Literature, television, advertising, popular music, political and historical documents, maps and census all function as powerful discourses that the deconstructive methodology attempts to understand. Local narratives, grand universal narratives, meta-narratives and proto-narratives all employ language to create their own histories and versions of reality. The imagined nature of reality and the concept of nation and individual is a function of modern print capitalism ably demonstrated by Benedict Anderson in Imagined Communities.  Figures of speech or tropes employ shifting meanings that hide intentions to dominate or exploit. We employ the tropes of image, symbol, metaphor and irony to describe, compare and contrast what we wish to tell.

IMAGERY, SYMBOLISM, METAPHOR

 Imagery invariably creates a mental picture of something, which is visual, auditory, spatial, tactile, temporal or archetypal. Mathew Arnold’s poem “Dover Beach” provides many examples of these images. We can see the “calm” sea and also the “alarms of struggle and flight” where ignorant armies clash by night. The poem reflects a cosmic anxiety and attempt to see big global patterns.

Symbolism uses words to suggest an area of meaning beyond itself. Though the flag is just apiece of cloth but it symbolizes a country with all its dreams and aspirations. The piece of cloth is imbued with symbolic meaning and destruction of the cloth can be seen as an insult to the nation. Carl Jung defines a symbol as "a term, a name, or even a picture that may be familiar in daily life, yet that possesses specific connotations in addition to its conventional and obvious meaning. It implies something vague, unknown, or hidden from us." National iconography constructs the identity of a nation through these means. Religious or cultural icons also function in similar fashion.

Metaphors employ words or pictures to compare them to something else. When politicians become pigs they are represented as greedy and selfish; but when they become vultures they are preying on their innocent citizens. The use of words such as “like” or “as” illustrates a comparison and function as similes. Generally speaking similes are logically true comparisons while metaphors are false comparisons. Surprisingly in everyday speech we use metaphors more frequently than similes.  

IRONY

Irony emphasizes what we want to say by saying the very opposite. In that sense ironic statements function like metaphors. A father might call his 4-year old son “A Big Chap” or a married daughter a “little girl.” When I nip the bumper of another car the somewhat irate driver might stop in front and tell me, “Nice driving mister,” he is not complimenting me on my driving but pointing out my carelessness. He assumes that I understand the ironic import of his statement from the context in which it is spoken. Irony functions within a context.

 © Mukesh Williams 2012

Subash Chandra Bose and Rash Behari Bose

The Boses in Japan

This is not a meeting for conspiracy plot or strategy to sacrifice weaker and smaller countries, or to deceive weak and small neighbors. This meeting is the one for the released peoples of nations to create new order in this region in the world based on the dignified reciprocity principle and mutual support based on sovereignty, justice and international relations (Subhas Chandra Bose, Tokyo Saiban Kenkyu kai, 1948 158-159).    

It was the desire to liberate the motherland that forced Rash Behari Bose (1886-1945) and later Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose (1886-1945) to come to Japan in the first half and middle of the twentieth century, but the lure of the land and a subtle twist of fate never allowed them to either return to their motherland or see it liberated. Both Rash Behari and Subhash Chandra were victims of a fate that prevented them from doing heroic deeds though Rash Behari is still admired as a hero in Japan while Netaji is revered as hero at home. Both the Boses used the rising aspirations of the Indian nationalists and the grand imperial ambitions of the Japanese government to create a favorable public opinion for both the Indian freedom struggle and their own leadership in Japan. They were aided by the rich Japanese nationalists groups in Japan and the expatriate Indian community in Germany who supplied both money and connections to propagate their ideas and ideologies through the printing press and the publishing industry. Though the Boses possessed dreamy idealism and quixotic vision of liberating their country by destabilizing the British Empire, they were not alone in their thinking. The Japanese nationalists, thinkers and politicians also believed in essentialist ideas of nationhood and history and felt that if Japan could defeat a European power like Russia a century ago, it was not difficult for it to team up with the Indian revolutionaries and defeat the British in India and from thence rule the world.

MASS MEDIA--THEORIES AND STRATEGIES

Mass Media

Ideology and Control

1. The Italian Marxist thinker Antonio Gramsci, Antonio (1891-1937) who tired to unify social theory and political practice analyzed the hegemonic and ideological role mass media played in modern times. Gramsci introduced the concept of ideology and hegemony in capitalist societies posthumously in Quaderni di carcere/Prison Notebooks (1947). He argued that since ideology and politics were not wholly dependent on economic factors alone, the working class could liberate itself by conducting a sustained intellectual and political struggle. In his concept of hegemony in capitalist societies Gramsci explained that actual class control is ideological and cultural and not so much physical. When the working class, educated by radical intellectuals, realizes the bourgeois propaganda it seeks revenge by overthrowing the status quo. His gradualist Marxist approach to overthrow bourgeois ideology allowed European Marxists to forge their own determinism as distinct from the orthodox determinism of Soviet communism.

2. One of the offshoots of Gramsci's hegemonic concept in capitalist societies is the use of the media as a hegemonic tool to support dominant ideologies. The 'truth' of a dominant ideological discourse has to be first adapted to the unique cultural and historical situation of the social group before it can be spread. The lives of individuals living in modern societies are not only physically limiting but also intellectually and morally constraining. The media has tried to overcome both the limitation and constraint by becoming the basis for communication between groups of peoples

3. It is possible to impose common sense and supposedly natural traits on a large group of people living in a society and influence their opinion in a desired direction. It has been observed that individual views quickly spreads in society on the wings of the media and acquires the larger identity of public opinion.  In recent years many cultural scholars in the West have taken the help of socially- accepted views to rationalize their own hegemonic ideas. The way these scholars and the media present marginalized groups such as ethnic minorities, gay and lesbians reveal hidden hegemonic persuasions.

4. The media supports certain dominant values as against suppressed values. We are given to believe that the function of the media is to present information objectively allowing consumers the freedom to make up their own minds about an issue or subject.  The modern media is an entirely different ball game. Psychological pressure on people through advertisement campaigns and coercive tactics on disempowered groups to toe the line valorize hegemonic intentions of dominant groups. Racism is the plague of Western cultures largely bolstered and made problematic by an intentionally or unintentionally biased Western media.

5. The issue becomes more complicated as media invariably claims to be impartial but in essence is not. And yet both the politician and the public take recourse to the media either to disseminate their views or gain access to news quickly. The media not only informs us about what's happening in the world also creates the information that we receive. And if we employ the theory of hegemony we may conclude that the media not only informs us about day-to-day events but also creates an ideology by which it must be consumed.

6. The 13^th century European theory of representative government stated that there were three estates that allowed the proper the functioning of society--the nobility, the clergy and the commons. The first defended society from foreign aggression, the second took care of its spiritual needs and the third produced the resources to support the first two. Observing the increasing power of the press in 18^th century British society, Edmund Burke coined the term the fourth estate. He could never have anticipated the burgeoning of the media in modern societies and the control they exercise on people.

7. The media now possesses the power to move through social barriers at ease and can allow a group to win social consent or lose it. Recognizing the hegemony of the media, both dictators and democratic governments use organized media to further their own ends or are in turn controlled by it. The media has increasingly decided the success or failure of political parties, their political agenda or selected leadership by creating popular consensus.

8. Examples of the power of the television and the press has been visible in recent times in both India and Great Britain. In January 1987, the Indian state-run television, Doordarshan, began broadcasting a Hindu epic in serial form, the Ramayana, to nationwide audiences, violating decades-old taboo on religious partisanship. What resulted was the largest political campaign in post-independent times, around the symbol of Ram, led by Hindu nationalists. The complexion of Indian politics was irrevocably changed thereafter.

9. In this book Arvind Rajagopal analyses this extraordinary series of events. While audiences may have thought they were harking back to an epic golden age, Hindu nationalist leaders were embracing the prospects of neo-liberalism and globalization. Television was the device that brought these movements together, symbolizing the new possibilities of politics, at once more inclusive and authoritarian than previously practiced by the Congress Party.

10. The television serial on the life of Ram was woven into the larger historical context making it sound more objective and universal and acceptable to a larger section of the Indian population, not just staunch middle class Hindus. Obviously this changed the character of Hindu nationalism and the way it constructed the Indian nation. Obviously the minorities such as the Muslims and Christians saw this as a sinister move to either purge or silence them in post-independent India. The BJP construction of its political identity in Hindu religious terms led to the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, religious riots that killed thousands and persecution of the Christians that resulted in Church burning and killing of Australian missionaries. Arvind Rajagopal s excellent book, Hindu Nationalism and the Reshaping of the Public in India offers an excellent analysis about politics after the television campaign to reshape Hindu national identity and affect poltical reconstruction of the Bhartiya Janta Party (or Indian Peoples Party) popularly called BJP.

11. An example of the power of the press and media can be drawn in the battle for consent in respect of the Poll Tax which was introduced by a politically lagging Margaret Thatcher. The media instantly latched upon the idea and managed to create and fuel an atmosphere of both hatred and passion towards the new policy and in turn for the government. The pressure led to demonstration, rioting and general revolt against the idea. It could be argued that theory of hegemony was tested by this fact. However, media coverage of the whole story may have given rise to the eventual removal of the policy, therefore the theory could be said to have linked in with the coverage and ideological role of the media.

12. Many people have moved to a situation whereby they received their political information from sound bites and tiny snippets of media. It is here where the battle lines are drawn when it comes to the winning of consent. The turning of The Sun to support Labour in 1997 was considered by many to be the turning point. The headline “It was The Sun what won it”(The Sun, 2 May 1997, p. 1.) is an example of how the media saw the whole of the 1997 campaign. If the people who are at the center of creating the ideology to be consumed by the public see the importance of the winning of consent through media, then the theory could be argued to exist. However, the media are as powerful as the public permits it to be. A monster created by the people for the people; the media are responsible for the deliverance of messages is the area of discussion for political ideology. People who are dragged into the realm of believing and above all, trusting the media are the ones at risk of being dominated and instilled with the values of others. The current debates within the media on topics such as whether Britain should join the Euro and the growing of genetically modified food are examples of the way in which media can influence the debate. The phrase Frankenstein food is regularly used to describe the crops that no official report has conclusively proved as cast iron facts.

Questions:

1.     Explain Antonio Gramsci’s concept of ideology?

2.     Can we apply Gramsci’s ideas of hegemony to modern mass media?

3.     How does the media construct reality, empowers certain groups and erases or marginalizes others? Give some examples from modern history.

4.     How should we analyze the information given by the media impartially?

Scientific Lab Reportsin English

Writing Scientific Lab Reports

Writing accurately and scientifically helps us to share our hypothesis and conclusions with the rest of the world and contribute towards the advancement of documented and written forms of knowledge. Scientific lab reports add to the cumulative knowledge of man. They help us to verify our conclusions, concepts, procedures and practices. They become the focal point for our research paper writings, conference presentations and submissions to scientific journals.

Scientific Reports: All scientific reports employ the scientific method based on two kinds of logic—inductive logic (particular to general) and deductive logic (general to particular). We use inductive logic to develop a hypothesis and then employ deductive reasoning to verify the hypothesis. At times our hypothesis does not stand the test of our deductive reasoning and we have to abandon it. Then we think of a new hypothesis for renewed testing.

Scientific Practice: Over the centuries scientific practice has developed its own unique procedures and exactitude. Invariably lab reports are organized around seven sub-themes namely: title, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion, conclusion and literature cited. 

1.      Title: A title should be succinct and provide all the factual details of the lab experiment. It should be between five to ten words and use keywords to catch the attention of the reader.

2.      Abstract: An abstract is usually a short, single paragraph which summarizes the research experiment without providing too many details. However an abstract presents the major findings and the procedure followed.

3.      Introduction: While writing a scientific introduction you should clearly state your objective. An objective involves what you have set out to prove. Then you must explain the context, why this work is singular and important. At last you should state the lab you are working for, name of your supervisor and significant dates including the start of the project and its completion.

4.      Materials and Methods: Materials and methods fall in the category of instruments, methodology and procedures. In this sub-heading you must explain the materials connected with your research experiment, instruments and procedures. This section should also show the way of tabulating or calculating the results. Sometimes the materials used can be separated from the methods.

5.      Results and Discussion: This is the most important section of the lab report as it provides the results of the scientific experiment based on calculations, tables and graphs. The data should not be left unexplained. A clear discussion of every graph and table must be provided and how a particular conclusion follows from it.

6.      Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the test results and procedures. It explains how, what was stated in the objective, has been realized. The conclusion also states what new knowledge has been acquired through the scientific experiment and how it advances the scientific field under investigation.

7.      Literature Cited: This section lists all the scholarly books and research articles actually consulted and differs from a general bibliography where lots of information is provided. Remember that most scientific journals have their own specifications for citations but citations must be alphabetically arranged.

Language: The language used in writing a lab report must be precise, objective and verb-loaded. Writers are often advised to use the passive voice (the verb to be+ the past participle of the verb) while elaborating upon methods and procedures.

New technologies: Researchers now take recourse to new technologies and computer programs such as GNU Octave, Mathcad, Maple, Atlas/ti, Jasymca A MATLAB or Baudline to organize their research data.

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIVE REPORTS

FORENSIC REPORTS

Writing Investigative Reports

Over the last few decades scientific investigative techniques to find evidence have grown rapidly. This development has made investigative reports such as forensic reports quite important.  Forensic reports conduct scientific analyses to locate evidence for both the police and the law which include blood analysis, hair, skin, DNA, finger printing, ballistic information, computer hard disks and brain mapping. The word forensic comes from the Latin root implying a form or public space. It is a new branch of scientific investigation using latest advances in science. It is good to remember Sherlock Holmes’ deductive logic when thinking about this investigative technique. Highly skilled forensic experts are expected to prepare logical and clear reports that are used both for deductive reasoning and submitting evidence in court proceedings.

Forensic labs are quite useful in providing analyses of samples. These lab reports are meticulously prepared detailing procedure, analysis observations and documentation. Such reports are expected to eschew assumptions and unscientific interpretations. Scientific facts alone matter! However they occasionally go wrong and reach unscientific conclusions which often result in wrong indictment.

A forensic report is invariably organized along three indices: firstly, evidence method; secondly observation or interpretation and thirdly, observation, results or conclusion. The first process describes the evidence or artifacts collected from the accident site. The second details the procedure followed to test evidence. Here graphs, photographs, charts, diagrams and sketches are used. Finally observation involves analyses of scientific data like DNA or blood type. The conclusion when introduced in court also shows if the evidence presented is conclusive or inconclusive.  It also includes the credentials of the expert, such as name, title, qualifications, years of experience and professional standing in the area. Both the prosecuting and defense attorneys take note of this while arguing the case. Specimens collected from the site are often referred to as exhibits to further provide strength to a specific argument or line of thinking.   

Some General Terms Used in Technical Research

 Technical Research

The term technical research usually refers to applied research in the engineering disciplines and attempts to develop tools and procedures to measure or test equipment. Technical research also provides solutions to technical problems.

Technical Report

A technical report is a document which objectively records the procedures adopted and results obtained after a scientific or technical investigation (experiment) has been completed.

Technical Proposal

A technical proposal states clearly the requirements of a project or a contract, the plan of its completion in stages, and the approach taken.

Technical Standard

There is a technical standard set for technical research which involves a formal and concise statement of specifications and scientific observation of results.

Technical Specifications

Technical specifications involve a precise statement of the needs to be addressed or essential requirements of an instrument (materials, methods and process used; service, system and work required). The specifications are usually written in a scientific and precise manner for all parties to understand and evaluate. Specifications are usually divided into two categories:

1)     Performance specifications such as conformance to a specified range such as range of room temperature

2)     Technical specifications which clarifies the level of performance of each unit. This is further subdivided into: a) unit boundaries, parameters and tolerance (level of departure from its nominal value); b) quality level of each unit; c) acceptable statistical distribution (mean deviation and standard deviation).

Graduate Program, English Academic Writing

【シラバスに含むべき項目】

1.      科目名 アカデミックラィティング（英語）　　

2.      英文科目名English Academic Writing

3.      担当教員Dr. Mukesh Williams

4.   単位数 2

5.   コマ数 1

6.   受入予定学生数 40人

7.   講義概要

The course is designed for graduate and doctoral students of Keio University who are expected to write academic papers and research theses in English in the modern academic world. Students will be made familiar with the actual process of academic writing such as outlining research papers, providing evidence, and using argument and counter-argument, methodologies, formats, and style sheets. They will also be introduced to strategies of writing thesis statements, paragraphs, abstracts, conclusions, literature reviews and academic styles. The course will also explore methods, results, text structures, and data techniques. After completing the course students will become familiar with the process of planning, organizing, researching, writing, editing and formatting academic papers and research theses. They will also recognize the use of primary and secondary sources and avoid plagiarism, non sequitur and lengthy quotations. The course requires dedication, sustained hard work, and a keen desire for self-improvement.

8. １３回分の詳細なスケジュール

Schedule

1	English Academic Writing	Introduction to English academic writing
2	Approach to Academic Writing	Academic writing in the modern world—purpose, strategy, organization, style, formal grammar and positioning
3	Writing General-Specific Texts, Thesis Organization	Sentence, grammar, extended contrastive and comparative definitions and generalizations, organizing ideas in a thesis
4	Writing Critiques and Data Commentary	Writing critiques and literature reviews for research papers and theses, recommended thesis structure;
		Strength of claim and structure of data commentary
5	Academic Grammar and Style	Use of precise, specific, formal, impersonal language, powerful reporting verbs, formal grammar, correct in text/ bibliographical references, recommended thesis structure
6	Writing Summaries	Writing summaries, comparative summaries, plagiarism
7	Writing Summaries Continued	Summarizing essays
8	Methodologies, Formats, Style Sheets	Research methodologies especially in the social sciences and policy studies, approved publication styles, formatting and academic style sheets—APA, Chicago, MLA etc. Writing summaries, comparative summaries, plagiarism
9	Outlining and Drafting	Planning organizing, researching and drafting academic research papers; outlines to fit topics
10	Strategies for Writing Introductions and Literature Reviews	Writing introductory paragraphs, categorization, organizational method, evidence, selection, quotations, keeping opinion
11	Methods and Results	The process of writing about methods and results, recommended thesis structure
12	Recommended Theses Structures, Presenting Data	Chronological sequence, comparison/contrast, description, problem/solution and cause and effect; Data analysis, commentary and presentation, recommended thesis structure
13 14.	Discussion and Conclusion Rewriting and Finalizing	Framing conclusions/discussion sections, recommended thesis structure Grammar, style and rational thinking
15	Review, Assessment	Peer review of papers, summing up and late assignments, comments
	and Summing Up

テキスト

Swales, John M. and Feak B. Christine. (2004). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Tasks and Skills, (2^nd edition). Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

9. 成績評価方法

Grades would be based on:

Attendance: 20%

Weekly assignments and final paper: 80% (60+20)

10. 設置理由

The course is established to provide guidance to graduate and doctoral students at SFC in research paper and theses writing.